Table of Contents

                              i. Symbols of Alchemy

                             ii. Seven Planetary Aspects

                            iii. The 3 Primes and 4 Aspects

                             iv. Laboratory Tools in History

                              v. Famous Alchemists in Time

Symbols of Alchemy

     Alchemy has always been shrouded in a certain amount of secrecy.  At times, it was because alchemists were thought of as heretics by most people and by the Church in particular, while at other times, it was because the alchemists themselves did not want to divulge their secrets.  Whatever the reason, a complex system of symbols was developed to convey their ideas and the various basic principles of the discipline.  The following chart illustrates some of the symbols and their meanings.  It’s important for us to learn these symbols because just as you wouldn’t learn to read and write without first learning the alphabet, you can’t REALLY learn the foundations of alchemy without a certain appreciation for its symbology.

     If you paid close attention to the various symbols, you may have noticed that some of them were familiar chemical elements.  In fact, alchemy is often called the precursor to modern chemistry, and many important and famous chemists were also students of alchemy.  This is why elements such as mercury, tin, iron and sulphur (just to name a few) have their own alchemical symbols. Because they were important ingredients in many alchemical processes, they were studied in depth, which led to the discovery of many of their known chemical and physical properties.

The Emerald Tablet

     The Emerald tablet is the very foundation of alchemy and is the oldest surviving alchemical text.  It is said to be inscribed with the essence of alchemical philosophy, including the magical secrets of the world and a formula for the perfection of anything.  Nearly every self-respecting alchemist has a copy of the Emerald Tablet hanging on his wall and will refer to it constantly.  The most common version of the tablet is written in Latin, and many noted alchemists have made their own translations of the text in an effort to discover the secrets it hides.

     The text itself consists of 7 rubrics (or paragraphs), which describe the steps to follow in order to achieve perfection.  The following image (the Tabula Smaragdina) illustrates the principles of the Emerald Tablet and is said to contain all the symbols of Alchemy.

     In alchemy, symbols were created to represent different elements. For a time, the astronomical symbols of the planets were used. However, as alchemists were persecuted—particularly in medieval times—secret symbols were invented. This led to a great deal of confusion, as there are often many symbols for a single element as well as some overlap of symbols.

     Unlike those of the chemical elements, the alchemy symbols for earth, wind, fire, and water were fairly consistent. They were used for the natural elements into the 18th century, when alchemy gave way to chemistry and scientists learned more about the nature of matter.

     Earth was indicated by a downward-pointing triangle with a horizontal bar running through it. The symbol could also be used to stand for the colors green or brown. Additionally, the Greek philosopher Plato associated the qualities of dry and cold with the earth symbol.

     The alchemy symbol for air or wind is an upright triangle with a horizontal bar. It was associated with the colors blue, white, sometimes gray. Plato connected the qualities of wet and hot to this symbol.

     The alchemy symbol for fire looks like a flame or campfire—it's a simple triangle. It's associated with the colors red and orange and was considered to be male or masculine. According to Plato, the fire alchemy symbol also stands for hot and dry.

     Appropriately, the symbol for water is the opposite of the one for fire. It's an inverted triangle, which also resembles a cup or glass. The symbol was often drawn in blue or at least referred to that color, and it was considered female or feminine. Plato associated the water alchemy symbol with the qualities wet and cold.

     In addition to earth, air, fire, and water, many cultures also had a fifth element. This could be aether, metal, wood, or something else. Because the incorporation of a fifth element varied from one place to another, there was no standard symbol.

     The Philosopher's Stone was represented by the squared circle. There are multiple ways to draw this glyph.

     The symbol for sulfur stood for more than just the chemical element. Together with mercury and salt, the trio made up the Three Primes, or Tria Prima, of alchemy. The three primes could be thought of as points of a triangle. In it, sulfur represented evaporation and dissolution; it was the middle ground between the high and low or the fluid that connected them.

      Modern scientists recognize salt as a chemical compound, not an element, but early alchemists did not know how to separate the substance into its components to come to this conclusion. Simply, salt was worth its own symbol because it is essential for life. In the Tria Prima, salt stands for condensation, crystallization, and the underlying essence of a body.

     The symbol for mercury stood for the chemical element, which was also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum. It was also used to represent the swiftly moving planet Mercury. As one of the three primes, mercury reflected both the omnipresent life force and a state that could transcend death or Earth.

     There were several possible element symbols for the metal copper. The alchemists associated copper with the planet Venus, so sometimes, the symbol for "woman" was used to indicate the element.

     The crescent moon was a common alchemy symbol for the metal silver. Of course, it could also represent the actual moon, so context was important.

     The alchemy symbol for the element gold is a stylized sun, usually involving a circle with rays. Gold was associated with physical, mental, and spiritual perfection. The symbol can also stand for the sun.

     The alchemy symbol for tin is more ambiguous than others, probably because tin is a common silver-colored metal. The symbol looks like the number four, or sometimes like a seven or letter "Z" crossed with a horizontal line.

    The alchemy symbol for the metal antimony is a circle with a cross above it. Another version seen in texts is a square placed on edge, like a diamond.

     Antimony was also sometimes symbolized by the wolf—the metal represents man's free spirit or animal nature.

     A wide variety of seemingly unrelated symbols were used to represent the element arsenic. Several forms of the glyph involved a cross and two circles or an "S" shape. A stylized picture of a swan was also used to represent the element.

     Arsenic was a well-known poison during this time, so the swan symbol might not make much sense—until you recall that the element is a metalloid. Like other elements in the group, arsenic can transform from one physical appearance to another; these allotropes display different properties from each other. Cygnets turn into swans; arsenic, too, transforms itself.

     The alchemy symbol for platinum combines the crescent symbol of the moon with the circular symbol of the sun. This is because alchemists thought platinum was an amalgam of silver (moon) and gold (sun).

     Alchemists were fascinated by phosphorus because it seemed capable of holding light—the white form of the element oxidizes in air, appearing to glow green in the dark. Another interesting property of phosphorus is its ability to burn in air.

     Although copper was commonly associated with Venus, the planet was called Phosphorus when it glowed brightly at dawn.

     Lead was one of the seven classical metals known to the alchemists. Back then, it was called plumbum, which is the origin of the element's symbol (Pb). The symbol for the element varied, but since the metal was associated with the planet Saturn, the two sometimes shared the same symbol.

     There were two common and related alchemy symbols used to represent the metal iron. One was a stylized arrow, drawn pointing up or to the right. The other common symbol is the same as what is used to represent the planet Mars or "male."

     Not a lot is known about the use of bismuth in alchemy. Its symbol appears in texts, typically as a circle topped by a semicircle or a figure eight that is open at the top.

     The alchemy symbol for potassium typically features a rectangle or open box ("goalpost" shape). Potassium is not found as a free element, so alchemists used it in the form of potash, which is potassium carbonate.

     There were several different symbols for the metal magnesium. The element itself is not found in pure or native form; rather, the alchemists used it in the form of "magnesia alba," which was magnesium carbonate (MgCO3).

     "Philosopher's wool" was zinc oxide, sometimes called nix alba (white snow). There were different alchemy symbols for the metal zinc; some of them resembled the letter "Z."

Seven Planetary Aspects

Roman gods and goddesses.

     In 2500 B.C.E., a man named Sarus Ignus believed that the seven planetary aspects were capable of helping him find Panacea. Panacea is an elixir that was said to cure all illnesses and prolong life, however this wasn't the Elixir of Life, but rather a connection to the Elixir of Life and the Philosopher's Stone. However, there has been no evidence proving the planetary aspects have anything to do with Panacea. There have been several witches and wizards who believed Ignus was just spouting lies. A well-known alchemist during the mid-1700’s named Tyrus Smith wrote a thesis about how Sarus Ignus never had any factual evidence ing his ideas. This thesis was known as the Theory of Innovations. The story often dictated that Panacea was unreachable or that it simply didn't exist.

     Check out the picture above. Notice how each aspect has a line connecting them to another celestial body (with the exception of the sun)? That is what we call a transitional. A transitional, also known as medio, is when the characteristics of one celestial body transfers to another. The transitional phase is split up into two parts: aditus and barathri. Aditus means "the beginning" and is obviously the beginning of the transitional phase. Aditus lasts through pretty much the whole transitional; from the start of the transitional phase until the end of the phase. If you are transmuting metals, the aditus portion of the transitional phase includes the beginning of the transmutation through the actual process of transmuting the metal. Barathri means "the abyss" and this happens when the metal has gone through the full transformation and the characteristics have officially transferred over.

     How long do these transitional phases take? Each individual transition has a certain amount of time it takes to complete the transmutation. This allotted amount of time is called the Transitional Period (TP). The Transitional Period can range anywhere from one day to thirty-one days, though there is one known to be infinite!

     The chart below details each celestial body, what element and characteristic they're associated with, and which celestial body it transitions to. when you write the chart down that even though we are talking about planets, the elements themselves are the ones that are being transmuted.

     When spells are used to transmute the proper elements, the characteristics of each will change. For example, we can use iron and silver. Both elements correlate to the proper planet: iron goes with Mars and silver goes with Venus. Notice how Mars and Venus transition to each other. When using spells on iron, we can transfer the characteristics of silver into the iron and vice versa.

     Let's talk about Venus. It's the second planet in the solar system. When you think of the Roman goddess of the same name or her Greek counterpart, Aphrodite, you think of love. As you may know from the chart as well as the picture above, silver correlates with Venus. Silver has calm and soothing effects; it's pretty stable in that it isn’t chaotic nor highly reactive like iron.

     Mars is the fourth planet in the solar system and is known as the "Red Planet." We know from Lesson Four that the high prevalence of iron oxide (rust) gives Mars its reddish appearance. It's named after the Roman god of war, Mars, and the Greek counterpart is Ares. Iron is associated with Mars and rightly so because iron is chaotic and highly reactive.

     Venus has a transitional period of one day into Mars. It's the easiest transition to use and one of the quickest. Many alchemists believe the transitional period is so quick due to the close distance between both planets. All of the spells needed to transmute metals using this transition need to be done within the time of the transitional period or the transmutation will fail and you will have to wait until the transitional phase starts again after the Mars to Venus transition is over.

     Luckily if you miss the Venus to Mars transition, the Mars to Venus transition is also only one day. However, this transition isn't as easy to use because of the risks involved with it. how iron is chaotic and reactive? The Mars to Venus transition is the same way. If you plan on using this transition, you should be in a room that is protected by enchantments. Alchemists typically went into bunkers when using spells on metals during this transition. It has a large amount of backfires that are almost guaranteed to happen. However, it produces a lot of positive results if everything is done correctly. Some believe that the Mars to Venus transitional phase could be the key to creating the Elixir of Life, although there has never been any evidence of this.

     A characteristic is defined as "a distinguishing trait, quality, or property." Notice how the elements have their own characteristics apart from the actual planets. Using certain spells on elements can cause unforeseen and long-term effects, depending on the transition, the spell, and which element you're using it on. For example, let's say you're using the transition from Mars to Venus on some silver. Performing the correct spells will transfer over iron's characteristics to silver, making it chaotic and reactive rather than calm and soothing. This is the first process that needs to be done before fully transmuting the metal.

     Let's look at Mercury. It's the first planet in our solar system and it's one of the fastest to orbit the Sun. It's named after the Roman messenger of the gods, Mercury, with its Greek counterpart being Hermes. It corresponds with lead, which has the characteristics of speed and intuition. Although lead is typically associated with Saturn in Paracelsus's Harmony of Elements and Organs, the majority of the metal's characteristics fit better with Mercury. Mercury represents our sublime, innate intelligence as well as our motivation. You know that essay in History of Magic that you have been putting off for a while because you don't feel motivated enough to do it? Maybe you just need to channel Mercury a bit!

     Who is the king of the skies? Why, it's Jupiter of course! It's the largest planet in our solar system and is the first of the gas giants. It's the guardian who protects our solar system and our skies with high and mighty power. Jupiter, or Zeus in Greek mythology, is the god of sky and thunder. He's the chief deity, the big man on Olympus. Jupiter is associated with gold, the king of the noble metals. How fitting. Gold has the characteristics of being strong and durable.

     The transitional phase of Jupiter to Mercury has the longest transitional period, which lasts thirty-one days. The TP is so long because it goes through a lot in the transition. Jupiter to Mercury never fails, making it fairly easy and safe for anyone who wants to use it. There have been reports where the other transitions do fail, but there have not been any reported incidents of Jupiter to Mercury being unsuccessful. The key to using this transition is patience, as transmutation spells tend to drag out in length due to the long transitional period.

     An Indian alchemist named Singh Dharma was known for using Jupiter to Mercury quite often. He believed that using this transitional would help find a way to destroy dragon pox. There have been cures developed for the disease, but nothing has been created to completely extinguish it. One of his other known experiments was trying to transition lead into silver. This is very difficult to do since they belong to different transitionals.

     Mercury to Jupiter has a transitional period of six days. This is one of the more popular transitionals as it is one of the most conducive ways to turn lead into gold. It is also one of the more difficult transitionals to perform; everything has to be done correctly to a T for a successful transmutation. Mercury to Jupiter is also hard to catch due to the long TP of Jupiter to Mercury. If you don't catch this transitional before it ends, you would have to wait another thirty-one days before even thinking about attempting it again. Yikes!

     Just to clarify, the Moon we're talking about here is Earth's moon, not any other planet's moon. It's Earth's only natural satellite and we see it every night. The Moon is symbolic for its youth and radiance. You would think that it would transition well with Venus, however the aspects are too similar that it could cause a chaotic ripple. Copper is paired up with the Moon and is associated with rebirth and renewal. I often like to think of it as looking at things from a new perspective.

     Saturn is one of the most identifiable planets in the solar system as it's equipped with a beautiful set of rings. It's named after the Roman god of agriculture, Saturn, also known as Cronus in Greek mythology. Saturn is known to be the ancient one; the oldest of the planets; the grandfather. Ruthenium is associated with this planet and has the characteristics of wisdom and longevity. The transition between the Moon and Saturn can be seen as a representation of life and death. Think of a phoenix; it lives until it's too old to live anymore (Saturn) and so then it bursts into flames only to be reborn from the ashes (Moon).

     The transitional period from the Moon to Saturn is eleven days. Even though Mercury to Jupiter is quite popular with alchemists, the Moon to Saturn is the most popular and sought after transition. This transitional phase is capable of prolonging one's life and has been tested by many alchemists. It isn't going to produce the Elixir of Life or extend your life indefinitely. However, using this transition can let you live well past 100 years old. Some believe that Albus Dumbledore used this transition to let him live as long as he did.

     Like the aforementioned transitional, Saturn to the Moon also has a transitional period of eleven days. Side effects of using this transition include hallucinations of the past, almost as if you are rewinding your life. Hallucinations will definitely happen if you come into with the element you choose to transmute using this transition. To avoid these side effects, it's best to stay away from the element after it's transitioned for at least thirteen days until the last fumes have worn off. When this waiting period is over, you will be rid of the risk of hallucinating and the air will smell like honey. Why does it smell like honey? No one has really ever found out why, but it's a great way to tell when your element is ready.

     Probably the most important planetary aspect is the Sun. When we think of the Sun, we often believe it to be the center of the universe - this is incorrect of course. I'm sure you learn in Astronomy that our universe expands for millions and millions of light-years. Our solar system is just a small fragment of stars and planets in one galaxy. The Sun is what gives power to our other planets, making the title "powerhouse of the solar system" a fitting one.

     You must have noticed in the chart that the Sun doesn't have a specific element or characteristic associated with it. In fact, it seems to transition to all the other aspects. The Sun's transitional phase is known to be infinite. The Sun contains the source of all magic and there's no way to deplete even a fragment of the magic locked deep within its vaults. Those who attempt to use the Sun for their own gain never fully get what they want. If someone were to obtain the Sun's power, a lot of chaos would ensue. With great power comes great responsibility, however this is definitely something no one should ever mess with.

     Now how exactly do we transmute metals using the seven planetary aspects? We won't get to learn the actual spells today as they are quite advanced, but they will be taught in Year Four. I will, however, talk a little about them. We will study the Great Work, also known as the Magnum Opus.

     In alchemy, there are four phases of the Great Work: Nigredo, Albedo, Citrinitas, and Rubedo. Alchemists have developed four spells that correspond with the phases that specifically transmute metals using the planetary aspects. The transitions are when the planet's power is the most concentrated. The four spells are used as a medium to channel this energy so that a transmutation can happen. Each spell needs to be performed in the order of the phases. The spells associated with Nigredo and Albedo deal with changing the characteristics of the element while the spells associated with Citrinitas and Rubedo are used to transmute the physical aspects of the element. These spells are very powerful and requires a powerful wizard/witch to attempt them. It's important to fully understand the seven planetary aspects before you even think about transmuting metals.

Three Primes and Four Aspects

     Paracelsus identified three primes (tria prima) of alchemy. The Primes are related to the Law of the Triangle, in which two components come together to produce the third. In modern chemistry, you can't combine the element sulfur and mercury to produce the compound table salt, yet alchemy recognized substances reacted to yield new products.

Tria Prima, the Three Alchemy Primes

Sulfur – The fluid connecting the High and the Low. Sulfur was used to denote the expansive force, evaporation, and dissolution.

Mercury — The omnipresent spirit of life. Mercury was believed to transcend the liquid and solid states. The belief carried over into other areas, as mercury was thought to transcend life/death and heaven/earth.

Salt — Base matter. Salt represented the contractive force, condensation, and crystallization.

     Paracelsus devised the three primes from the alchemist's Sulfur-Mercury Ratio, which was the belief that each metal was made from a specific ratio of sulfur and mercury and that a metal could be converted into any other metal by adding or removing sulfur. So, if one believed this to be true, it made sense lead could be converted into gold if the correct protocol could be found for adjusting the amount of sulfur.

     Alchemists would work with the three primes using a process called Solve Et Coagula, which translates to mean dissolving and coagulating. Breaking apart materials so they could recombine was considered a method of purification. In modern chemistry, a similar process is used to purify elements and compounds through crystallization. Matter is either melted or else dissolved and then allowed to recombine to yield a product of higher purity than the source material.

     Paracelsus also held the belief that all life consisted of three parts, which could be represented by the Primes, either literally or figuratively (modern alchemy). The three-fold nature is discussed in both Eastern and Western religious traditions. The concept of two ing together to become one is also related. Opposing masculine sulfur and feminine mercury would to produce salt or the body.

     Notice how they seem to connect to each other when you look at their qualities. Of course, this theory was questioned by alchemists and philosophers after Aristotle. During the Medieval era, a Persian alchemist named Jābir ibn Hayyān created an element system that used the four Aristotelian elements along with two philosophical elements: sulphur and mercury. The product of combining the two substances is salt.

      Imagine how fire burns wood. The smoke represents the volatility in mercury. The actual flames represent the flammability in sulphur. The remaining ashes are the solidarity in salt. Paracelsus used this explanation to justify the three primes.

     Sulphur is a bright yellow non-metal. It oxidizes several non-metals as well as most metals. It's an essential element for all life as it plays an important role in enzymes and antioxidant materials in the body. In alchemy, sulphur represents the omnipresent essence of life. It represents our soul, what we are on the inside. No matter how you change on the outside, you're still you. Sulphur represents fire. It's fiery and active; hot and dry. It’s also symbolic of our emotions and desires.

     Sulphur is the polar opposite of mercury. An important aspect of alchemy is being able to dissolve (turning a solid into a liquid) and coagulate (turning a liquid into a solid) elements. Sulphur can coagulate liquid mercury. Due to this reaction, the two primes are said to be connected in a mystic marriage, Conjunctio. In this sense we aren't talking about the actual elements themselves but the forces of nature themselves, Sol and Luna, otherwise known as the Sun and the Moon. Inside gold is the alchemical Sun, however inside the Sun is sulphur. Alchemists link sulphur with the Sun, giving our souls life.

________________________________

"Sulphur, the fiery spirit that vivifies

everything. The wings on his head and feet are the

traditional representations of the god Mercury.

But that (the fire) which comes from the sun,

which fire maintains

every bodily thing

for as far as it is natural."

- Nicholas Flamel

________________________________

     You may already know mercury as three different things: the chemical element, the planet, and the messenger god. In its chemical form, mercury is also known as quicksilver. It's the only metal that liquefies at standard room temperature and pressure. It's also very toxic so do be careful if you are ever handling this element. Mercury is also symbolic of moral judgment and imagination.

     Mercury is the messenger of the gods in Roman mythology. In Greek mythology, he is known as Hermes. He's a quick and cunning god of transitions and boundaries, moving to and from the mortal and divine worlds.

     Mercury is representative of the fluid connection between the High and Low. It's the glue that connects us to the ups and downs, between the heavens and the underworld. The fixed substance represents water and ambivalence. More importantly, mercury is our spirit. Our spirit connects to magic, which then connects back to the universe. It keeps us grounded on the Earth. Yet, while mercury may be what keeps all of us connected, it's also the chaos in our universe that can break those same bonds.

     If sulphur is the Sun, then mercury is the Moon; if sulphur is fiery and solid, then mercury is volatile and liquid. They're total opposites of each other yet they complete each other if we go by the concept of Conjunctio. In fact the entire idea of this mystic marriage symbolizes the inner meaning of alchemy!

______________________________

Hermes is the Primal Source.

After so many injuries

have been done to the human race,

I flow forth,

by divine decree

and assisted by the Art,

as a healing giving medidicine.

He who is able to, drink out of me.

He who wants, purify himself in me.

He who dares, jump into my depths.

Drink, brother, and live."

- Johann Valentin Andreae in Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz (Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosencreutz)

_____________________________

     When we bring sulphur and mercury together, the physical form of Salt is created. Salt represents the body, our vessel that lets us live on the physical plane. It nullifies the opposing forces of sulphur and mercury and brings them together in order to exist in the material world.

     Salt wasn't actually prominent until Paracelsus deemed it to be a part of the three primes. Before that alchemists only considered fire, earth, air, water, sulphur, mercury, and maybe aether as important elements. Paracelsus had a theory of there being a natural balsam. He believed it to be a salty preservation that shields the body from decay, corruption, and old age. Alchemists have been experimenting with salt in creating the Elixir of Life due to this theory. Even if it's not the key to gaining immortality, it could be a useful ingredient in beautification potions.

     Salt is symbolic for knowledge and wisdom as well as the earth aspect. It is an awareness of our inner-wisdom and self-consciousness. In its most basic form, it's described as bitter. What alchemists are referring to as bitterness is self knowledge, which can be bitter and painful. Salt can also be associated with ash, the ouroboros, and even the Philosopher's Stone itself.

     Before we talk about each aspect individually, I want to point out that the four aspects can be used to identify which aspects of our personality we can improve. A balance between all the aspects is ideal. Carl Jung, a psychologist and modern alchemist, was known for connecting several alchemy concepts with his psychology works from the 1940’s and on. In his theory of personality types, he used the four aspects to describe different archetypes in everyone. He characterized air and fire as active, masculine traits while water and earth were ive, feminine traits. Overall, Jung encouraged a balance of the four aspects in a person.

     Don't these look somewhat familiar? I'm sure most of you have taken the Myers-Briggs personality test already and know that you lean more towards one type than another. Intuition and sensation pair up with each other while thinking and feeling are pairs. You can actually use the Myers-Briggs test to see which side you lean on to work on creating a balance. If you're more sensing, then maybe try to be more intuitive. Why? This helps you build a fully integrated inner self rather than staying on one end of the spectrum.

     Our first aspect is obviously fire. It's a chaotic element that is hard to tame. However, chaos isn't always bad. In fact, chaos can bring out a creative spark from within you. It represents our ion, our desire, our will. Fire is the most active part of our imagination and consciousness, creating original ideas and breakthroughs. Fire initiates many processes and it can be used as a catalyst. Out of the Jungian types, fire is our intuition. When channeling fire, we don't need to think about it, instead we need to feel it.

     Looking at fire can be quite calming. Fire has a warmth and enthusiastic characteristic about it that may remind you of many positive memories. Even though fire has so many good qualities, it’s still hard to tame. When it gets out of hand, it can raise a lot of havoc and destruction. Fire magic is an archaic form of magic. Most of the people who choose fire as their main source of magic either have insidious intentions or are very ambitious.

     When casting any form of fire magic, it's always a good idea to take precautionary measures in case things get out of hand. I recommend that you find a fire-safe place such as a fireplace. Be sure to keep your wand pointed at the target instead of anywhere else. You don't need to burn your mother's favorite house plant or accidentally set the sofa on fire. One fire spell that would be great to practice is Incendio. You should've learned this in Charms already so I won't walk you through it. to keep the fire contained and have a good control over it.

     Air is a resemblance of our intellect. In fact, it symbolizes many of the thought patterns that happen in our minds. Thoughts are constantly moving and expanding just like air. Air symbolizes how our thoughts flow freely in the direction we want to send them. It invokes reason and logic, but in an expansive way instead of limiting. It goes without saying that the Jungian type that corresponds to air is thinking.

     Air is more distant than the rest of the elements. It's flexible and its magic is light and springy. Air magic is easier to produce than fire magic as it is not as complex. The trick to mastering air is to keep a clear mind. Take a deep breath in and then let it out. See how calming that feels? Keep that feeling in mind when you are casting any air spells.

     In alchemy, air can be used to help us find our inner self. We can separate which thoughts and emotions to keep and which to discard. It can raise our awareness about higher levels of consciousness and subtlety.

     Everything is physical, from the grass, to the trees, to the flowers. Like salt, earth is also our body or matter on the material plane. We use earth to take our higher energies and ideas and put them into a physical form. We make things tangible so we can put them into practical use.

     For a mundane example, imagine that you had an idea about how to make the world's best slingshot. You plan it all in your head. Earth represents the actual building of the slingshot as well as the ability to use it when it's done. We can think of many ideas and get creative all day but they won't become a reality until you take action. That's where you get results.

     In the four Jungian types, earth is sensation. In a psychological perspective, sensing means paying attention to the physical reality. Can you see, touch, hear, taste, or smell it? Sensing means paying attention to what is current, present, and real, as well as wanting to see the practical use of things. Earth is all about practicality and observing things in a physical form.

     In order to use earth magic, you need to be spiritually connected with the Earth. There is a connection among each individual person, whether they are magical or non-magical. That connection is what you need to tap into. After doing this, that earth is all about bringing things into the material plane. For example, let's say you're trying to grow flowers with magic. You need to engage the body through your five senses to get the end result. Focus on what the flowers would look like, what they smell like, etc. while doing the spell. Using your description of the flower, you make it tangible and real.

     This may sound complex, but it's actually very simple. Earth magic is taking ideas we believe to be complex and bringing them to life by simply using our senses. Like fire magic, earth magic dates far back to ancient times.

     Water is quite an emotional aspect. While fire gives us that creative spark and air lets our thoughts flow freely, water is able to take our creative thoughts and keep them flowing until they reach their destination. It may seem weak, but water is a powerful force. It's a quiet storm that is capable of wreaking havoc at any given moment. Just look at tsunamis! When they're out in the ocean, they may not seem like much at all. In fact, if you're on a boat when a tsunami es under you, it'll feel like a normal wave. However when they reach land, they can climb up to massive heights and destroy a lot of infrastructure.

     Water is our ability to flow and be flexible. It can take the shape of any container it's in. This encourages us to be adaptable to situations. Since this is the last element we're discussing, obviously water relates to the Jungian type feeling.

     Emotions are a great thing but they do need to be kept in check. They're often unpredictable and can make us do stupid things. When you're in the heat of the moment, your actions won't seem that bad. After you calm down and look back at what just happened, that's when you begin to reflect and regret your actions. Water is often the same way in of the aspect as well as its magic.

     In alchemy, water is used for purification, cleansing, and dissolving impurities in a system. Water can also be used as a medium for storing information as it has been scientifically proven to have a great capacity for memory. That will actually help us when we use earth to give it a physical form.

     Water is capable of expanding the reaches of magic towards the unknown. There's a mystery factor behind this aspect. Alchemists often wonder about the ability that water has in the physical and metaphysical world. One of the reasons Dzou Yen was able to transmute lead into gold was because he used water magic. The ancient Greeks believed in the power that water had over us as well. They believed that water could renew one's spiritual self by cleansing impurities in a form of metamorphosis.

Laboratory Tools in History

     A laboratory filled with odd-looking instruments, vials of various ingredients and papers strewn all over, is that was alchemy is?  Well, considering that the most common image associated with alchemy or alchemists is often something similar to the following, that’s what most people believe!

The Alchemist’s Laboratory

     Now that we have a better idea of what an alchemist does, it makes sense to explore the laboratory, its various instruments and ingredients a bit more carefully.  Most alchemists choose a dark, rather large, yet isolated room in which to do their experiments.  Since some of their work would consume them for days at a time, it was also important that their laboratory could meet their various needs, without drawing attention to itself.

     The walls of the laboratory would be covered with strange symbols and inscriptions, while animals skeletons and bunches of medicinal herbs might hang from the ceiling.  There would be several furnaces and a bellows to fan the flames.  Books and parchments would clutter the tables, while glass jars, crucibles, water-baths, beakers and stills would be found all over the room.

     A rather large number of  laboratory glassware used in modern science/chemistry laboratories were first invented by alchemists.  For example, the water-bath or "bain-marie" was first developed by Jewish alchemist Maria Prophetissa. This double-boiler like instrument was used to dissolve various substances, and since it allowed alchemists to heat substances at a gentle and constant heat, its use was widespread.   Of course, some alchemists went a step further in their mysticism, and believed that the outer boiler represented earthly water while the inner boiler signified heavenly water.  And true purification of substances could only be achieved when both were unified.

Mortar and Pestle

     I believe that most of you are familiar with the mortar and pestle. The mortar is a big round bowl while the pestle is a club-shaped object. There are multiple variants of mortars and pestles in material, shape, and size. They're used to prepare substances by grinding them into a fine paste or powder. They have been used since ancient times; in fact, the earliest known mortar and pestle dates back to 35,000 B.C.E.

     Here are some common types of mortars and pestles:

Wooden - Wooden mortars are often used in cooking. When you use a mortar made from wood, it is usually to crush small ingredients such as fennel. In Potions, you would use this type of mortar for certain potions when it's specifically called for. Usually it is used to help keep a certain taste or smell in mildly effective potions which are used externally (i.e. using lavender / rosemary).

Clay - Clay was widely used millennia ago. It is often viewed to be the starter mortar even today. Those who practiced medicine would use this form of mortar as there was nothing else to use. However, it often made the medicine and potions taste bitter.

Stone - Stone pestles are still used today, even in medicine. This mortar is used to grind certain medicines like aspirin. In alchemy, we often find ourselves either using graphite or other types of stone mortars as the stone itself provides a lingering sensation when it comes to the effects of its contents.

     The mortar and pestle are very important in alchemy. In Chinese folklore, there is a legend called the Moon rabbit. Judging by the name alone, it's about a rabbit that lives on the Moon. People believed that the markings on the Moon resembled a rabbit. The Chinese portrayed the Moon rabbit as a companion to the Moon goddess Chang'e. The rabbit would constantly pound the Elixir of Life in a mortar and pestle for her. This legend is also apparent in Japanese and Korean folklore, however, instead of the Moon rabbit pounding the Elixir of Life, it's just crushing the ingredients for rice cake.

     When you're grinding several ingredients, it's important to keep your mortar and pestle clean so you don't mix the contents. This is no easy feat of course as sometimes the residue will get stuck at the bottom of the mortar or the crushing side of the pestle. Alchemists use a wide range of spells to help keep their mortar and pestle clean. Unfortunately, there wasn't a spell to clean the mortar and pestle perfectly until 1414 C.E. During this year, a witch named Powaga Zoraida created the 'Maybe Mortar Charm.' It is a simple charm which one can use to clean their mortar and pestle perfectly. It leaves no residue, so therefore, it is one of the best cleaning charms.

Essential Oil Steam Distiller

     Now here's something you probably haven't heard of before. It's the Essential Oil Steam Distiller. It does exactly as its name implies: it can extract essential oils from steam. Witches and wizards rarely use this due to the fact that we can use magic for certain aspects of distilling oils from steam. However, it's still pretty important to know what these are and how to use one if the situation calls for it.

     Distillation was practiced during ancient times. Zosimos of Panopolis, who we learned about earlier this year, actually wrote about distilling divine water and panacea. A crude form of distillation was used during the Middle Ages to collect fragrant water for perfumes, tonics for digestion, trade, and everyday cooking. In 900 C.E., a child prodigy from Persia named Avicenna wrote about the uses of plants and refined the distillation process. Today, distillation is very common in extracting oils.

     There are three different methods involving the steam distiller that can be used to separate the oils:

The first method - Water Distillation

This process involves direct of an aromatic plant of your choice with water. Place the plant material in boiling water. The oils from the plant are captured in the steam, which then travels throughout various tubes until the oil is separated and ready to be collected.

     Flowers are commonly used with this method. Direct steam ing through flowers can make the flowers clump together, which in turn makes it difficult for the steam to get through. It's just better to dump them directly in the water. Clove oil is also extracted using water distillation.

The second method - Water and Steam Distillation

For this method, the plant material and water are again in the same chamber. The water is usually at the bottom while the plant material sits on top of a grate above the water. An indirect steam is introduced into the main chamber, pushing through the plant and water. The steam will rise with the oils, be separated, and then the oil is ready to be collected and used.

     Herbs and leaves are typically used with this method. Nutmeg oil is collected from water and steam distillation.

The third method - Straight Steam Distillation

This is the most common method as well as the most gentle and productive. The plant material isn't touching the water at all and instead is in a different chamber. Subtle aromas can be altered at high temperatures, so having the plant touch the water would not be good for certain plants like lavender. The water is boiled at a higher temperature than the two methods mentioned above because there are two separate chambers to push the steam through. The low-pressure steam is pushed into the chamber with the plant material, collecting the oils. It will then travel through a spiral tube in another chamber where hot water is introduced at the top and cold water is channeled in at the bottom (both outside of the spiral tube with the steam). This condenses the steam into a liquid. At the end of the tube, the essential oil mixed with water ends up in a tank known as an Essencier. The oil and fragrant water will separate by density and then the oil is ready to collect!

Crucible

     Crucibles are containers that are used to melt their contents and can withstand high enough temperatures so that they don't melt themselves. They are commonplace in the alchemy field. Even witches and wizards often find themselves using crucibles more than any magical tool that's been created. There are a few different variants of crucibles. If you correctly, we discussed the graphite crucible in an earlier lesson, which is known to withstand extremely high temperatures.

     There are several others too, of course. However, there's one in particular that suits the fancies of multiple alchemists. This is called the hessian crucible. This crucible was made around the Middle Ages to the Renaissance era in the Hesse region of . Many millions of these were sold throughout the country and the world. What makes the hessian crucible so fascinating? It was way before its time! It could withstand very high temperatures, handle rapid temperature changes, and could take strong reagents. Basically, this thing was almost impenetrable. The hessian crucible was made of mullite - an aluminum silicate that was made by firing kaolinitic clay.

Crucibles that are made from substances such as platinum are also known to be really good. Platinum is a very powerful element that is often resistant when it comes into with high temperatures. We know this from the noble metals lesson! However, as we also know, platinum is extremely rare so many choose to transmute it rather than own a platinum crucible. Another notable crucible is the Gooch crucible. It is actually used as a filtration device rather than to melt metals, therefore it isn't used for alchemy. I won't go much further into it, but it's quite interesting to look up in your free time.

It's also best not to add certain elements into a crucible under high temperatures. Elements like aluminum will cause the crucible to overheat and eventually crack or tarnish the crucible itself. to always take care of your crucibles like any other lab tool!

Sunbath

     The sand bath in Arabic it's known as qadr and in Latin it's called balneum arenosum.

     It's a funny looking contraption as you can see in the picture above. There is a container of matter that sits in this container of sand. The sand container is used to heat the inner container. The sand will act as a conduit with the heat that is placed under the sand bath via a hotplate, a fire, or even a spell. The purpose of a sand bath is to evenly distribute certain temperatures throughout the compartments. The heating usually ranges from 550 - 1500° C.

     There are many alchemical scripts about sand baths as it's one of the oldest laboratory tools used in alchemy. The sand bath process is one of what alchemists call the Four Degrees of Fire. It is a graded heating system developed by the ancients that's used with common fire. Here are the degrees in order:

First degree: Balneum Marie (Bath of Mary) - water bath

Second degree: Balneum Cinerus - ash bath

Third degree: Balneum Arena - sand bath

Four degree: Balneum Ignis - flame bath

     Fire is a very complex subject in the world of alchemy. There are several different types of fire and this is only one small part of a bigger picture.

Other Equipment

Alembic: the part of a still were liquid condenses.

Alundel: the part of a still which receives the distilled liquid.

Anthanor: a furnace rather like a modern chemist's sand bath, but using ashes instead.

Bain-Marie: an ancient water bath. Said to be the invention of Mary the Jewess, an early alchemist.

Calcinary Furnace: used for reducing metals and minerals into a fine powder.

Cucurbit: the part of the still where distillation occurs.

Cupel: a crucible made of bone ash.

Descensory: a funnel.

Descensory Furnace: a furnace with a funnel for pouring liquid down to a recepticle inside.

Dissolving Furnace: a small furnace ing a pan of water with rings in the pan to hold glass containers. Resembles the modern water bath. See Bain-Marie.

Kerotakis: old name for a Soxhlet extractor.

Matrass: a simple flask. See Philosopher's Egg.

Pelican: a special distilling flask with two necks for continuous distillation.

Philosopher's Egg: a special type of retort in which the neck of the flask went straight up. The forerunner of the modern Florence flask.

Retort: a flask with a long curved neck which curved downward. Named after a type of wild goose.

Still: short for distilling. An apparatus which boils liquids and catches the condensation.

Tripod: older version of a ring stand.

Beakers, crystallization dishes, spatulas, cloth filters, mortars and pestles, and tongs were also used by the alchemist in much the same way they are used by chemists today.

Famous Alchemists in Time

     The first alchemist on our list is Kanada. There is much debate as to when Kanada actually lived, but most sources seem to suggest that he was born around the year 600 B.C.E. near Gujarat, India during the Vedic Period. His father was a philosopher named Ulka, and Kanada was noted to have a keen sense of observation as a child.

     Kanada primarily studied a branch of alchemy called Rasavādam. As we already know from Lesson One, the Four Aspects are Earth, Air, Fire, and Water. Kanada believed there was a fifth aspect that he called Aether. Aether is the matter that fills the universe above the terrestrial sphere. It was used to explain phenomena such as how light travels and gravity. Many philosophers and alchemists debate over whether or not Aether should be added as a fifth aspect even today.

     Kanada also contributed the first idea of the atom. He got the idea when he was trying to break up some food into smaller pieces. After a while, he realized he couldn't divide the food any smaller and came up with the idea of matter that couldn’t be divided any further beyond a certain point. This indivisible matter was called anu (atom). Kanada explained that anu was indivisible, indestructible, and invisible to the naked eye. He also explained that when atoms of the same substance come together, they can combine into diatomic and triatomic molecules. The interesting part about this whole idea of atoms is that it developed independently from the idea of atoms in the Greco-Roman world!

     Along with being an alchemist, Kanada was a Hindu sage and philosopher. He founded the school of Vaisheshika, one of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism from ancient India, as well as writing the Vaisheshika Sutra. The Vaisheshika Sutra was the standard text for the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. The sutra claims that life in the temporary world is futile and that an understanding of god can free an individual from karma. It's split into ten sections, however there are four main concepts about the sutra that I want to stress:

— There are nine classes of realities: space, time, direction, mind, infinity of souls, and the four classes of atoms (earth, air, fire, and water).

— Everything is made up of atoms that connect together to form molecules.

— Individual souls are eternal and only live in the material body for a short time. (Immortality of the Soul)

— There are seven categories of experience: generality, activity, substance, quality, particularity, inherence, and non-existence.

     Dzou Yen, better translated as Zou Yan. Dzou Yen was an ired alchemist from China who lived from 305 B.C.E. to 240 B.C.E. Dzou Yen lived during the Spring and Autumn Period of the Zhou Dynasty in the state of Qi. The Zhou Dynasty lasted from 1046 B.C.E. until 256 B.C.E., making it the longest lasting dynasty in Chinese history. It was also the very same dynasty that gave birth to two major Chinese philosophies: Confucianism and Taoism. The latter of the two strongly ties into Chinese alchemy, which we will learn about in Year Three!

     Dzou Yen was not only an alchemist, but a man of many trades. He was a philosopher, a historian, a politician, a naturalist, a geographer, and an astrologer. I don't know about you, but I'd say Dzou Yen was pretty talented. He finalized two theories that had started during the Warring States Period: the five Chinese elements (wood, water, fire, earth, and metal) and the relationship of Yin and Yang. These laid down much of the foundation for Chinese alchemy as well as Chinese healing and geomancy.

     As an alchemist, Dzou Yen was credited as the first alchemist able to transmute base metals into noble metals. Alchemists before him had tried to accomplish this feat, but their attempts had all ended in failure. Alchemists who lived after Dzou Yen also had a hard time recreating this transmutation. For example, Liu Hsiang (79-8 B.C.E.) was another Chinese alchemist who was sought out by Emperor Xuan in 60 B.C.E. to turn lead into gold. He was an imperial adviser of the court and believed that he could create gold by following the recipes written by Dzou Yen and other alchemists. The Emperor let Liu Hsiang use as much money as he needed from the Treasury to fuel his experiment. After several attempts and a lot of money wasted, Liu Hsiang itted defeat. His failure caused him to be impeached from his position, imprisoned, and sentenced to death. However, Emperor Xuan valued his ability and let Liu Hsiang go when the alchemist's older brother offered up a hefty sum of money.

Needless to say, transmuting metals is much easier today than it was in the Zhou Dynasty and you won't lose your job if you fail!

     The next alchemist was quite the character. Zosimos of Panopolis was born approximately 300 C.E. in Panopolis (present day Akhmim), Egypt. Known for being a pioneer of alchemy, Zosimos wrote the oldest known alchemical books and manuscripts that have survived until today. They have been translated into multiple languages such as Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. New works by him are still being found; the most recent finding happened in 1995 when an Arabic translation of an excerpt was found inside of a book written by a Persian alchemist named Ibn Al-Hassan Ibn Ali Al-Tughra'i'.

     Zosimos' understanding of alchemy was influenced mainly by Hermetic teachings and Gnosticism. He defined alchemy as "the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from the bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies." This was one of the first recorded definitions of alchemy. Zosimos also believed that in metallic transmutations (i.e. lead into gold), the external process of the transmutation had to mirror an inner process of purification and spiritual redemption. Basically that meant that if you planned on transmuting metals, you had to cleanse your spirit and keep your mind free of running emotions and thoughts. This idea itself is heavily based on Hermeticism, an esoteric branch of alchemy that will be covered in Year Four.

     What is very interesting about Zosimos is that he was a dreamer. He had several visions of alchemy and meeting the god Ion. These visions weren't exactly uplifting and had heavy symbolic imagery. Often these visions would include some type of self-sacrifice of either Zosimos himself, Ion, or another man by gruesome methods such as mutilation or being boiled alive. After these gruesome events, a new being would emerge as a result of the sacrifice. This was believed by Carl Jung to be the first concept of a homunculus in any type of alchemical literature, although the word "homunculus" wasn't specifically written in Zosimos' writings.

     A homunculus, by definition, is a small human or humanoid creature. It is the desired result of the artificial creation or regeneration of man. In alchemy, the concept of balance is very important. There has to be two principles balancing each other, such as masculine and feminine or active and ive. This is the foundation of the eternal cycle of birth and death, represented by the ouroboros. The ouroboros is an image of a snake or dragon biting its own tail. In this sense, self-devouring is the same as self-fertilization. A homunculus stands for the ouroboros because it both destroys itself and gives birth to itself. There is a balance that has to be kept in all of this. Something of equal value must be given in order to receive the desired result.

     Our next alchemist is definitely one most of you have heard of: Nicolas Flamel. He is arguably the most famous alchemist in history. His research created a great foundation for the studies of future alchemists.

     Nicolas Flamel was born in 1327 around the northeastern suburbs of Paris, . Flamel attended Beauxbatons Academy of Magic and graduated top of his class. He was known to be quite talented at alchemy and had a love of opera. While he studied at Beauxbatons he met Perenelle Delamere, who he eventually married in 1368. Before marrying Nicolas Flamel, Perenelle had been married to two other men and brought a fortune into her marriage with the alchemist. She generously donated her wealth to churches and hostels by commissioning religious sculptures. She was also skilled in alchemy and often helped out with her husband's experiments.

     Sometime during the late 1300's, Flamel and his wife discovered the answers to crafting the Philosopher's Stone. The Philosopher's Stone is a powerful alchemical substance that's said to turn base metals into gold, cure any illness, and create the Elixir of Life. Some of you may have heard of this powerful elixir, and some of you probably have no idea what I am talking about. The Elixir of Life is the most sought out potion by anyone. It extends the life of the drinker as long as they drink it regularly. Other lesser known properties of the stone include reviving dead plants, turning crystals into diamonds, creating perpetually burning lamps, creating flexible glass, and creating a homunculus.

    Nicolas and Perenelle used the powers of the stone to create the Elixir of Life, which they lived off of for hundreds of years. The couple also donated copious amounts of money to Beauxbatons Academy along with the churches and hostels that Perenelle had been donating to previously.

     Nicolas Flamel was not just an alchemist but also a philosopher. He helped craft the essential rules and ethics of Medieval alchemy and published his own books and manuscripts.

     In 1991, Voldemort targeted the Philosopher's Stone. He planned on using the Elixir of Life to create a new body. As you may already know, Harry Potter faced off against Voldemort in order to protect the stone. After securing the Philosopher's Stone, the late Heaster of Hogwarts, Albus Dumbledore, and Nicolas Flamel discussed its fate. They came to an agreement to destroy it so that it wouldn’t fall into the wrong hands. Nicolas and Perenelle gave up their longevity by destroying the stone, thus subsequently depleting their supply of the Elixir of Life.

     Another great alchemist was named Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim. That's quite a mouthful, isn't it? You may know him by the name Paracelsus. Here's a fun fact: Paracelsus means "equal to Celsus" or "beyond Celsus" which is actually a reference to Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a Roman encyclopedist from the 1st century.

     Paracelsus was born in 1493 and was an important figure during the Renaissance era. He was fiercely intelligent and found his calling in medicine and philosophy. Paracelsus was no stranger to the Muggle world. He received an education at St. Paul's Abbey in Lavanttal, attended the University of Basel to study medicine, and eventually received his doctorate degree from the University of Ferrara. No one actually knows where he got his magical education from, though many magic historians believe he attended Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry due to him being a descendant of Salazar Slytherin.

     After graduating, Paracelsus traveled as a wandering physician. His travels took him through much of Europe, extending out towards areas such as Russia and the Anatolian peninsula, and he even ventured through Africa. Through his travels he gained quite a reputation. Most physicians were angered by Paracelsus, pegging him to be very stubborn and arrogant. Paracelsus lectured in German instead of Latin because he wanted medicinal knowledge to be accessible to commoners. He publicly burned medical books and called his predecessors liars and quacks. Obviously, this did not go down well with the elite and other figures in the medical field. In fact, the city council of Nuremberg, prohibited his writings from being published.

     So what did Paracelsus do that was so great? He is credited as the discoverer of the Parseltongue language. Although his ancestor, Salazar Slytherin, originally discovered the language, Parseltongue had been hidden for centuries until Paracelsus discovered that he could communicate with snakes.

     Besides being the discoverer of Parseltongue, Paracelsus gave the modern element Zinc its name. He created a script called the Alphabet of the Magi which was used for engraving angelic names into talismans. This alphabet was particularly useful among witches and wizards when enchanting items. Paracelsus is known as the father of toxicology due to his discovery that toxins in small doses can cure illnesses. He created laudanum, an opium tincture that was used to reduce pain up until the 19th century. In the field of psychotherapy, he provided the first clinical mention of the unconscious. Paracelsus even unknowingly observed hydrogen when he noticed that gas was a by-product of acid reacting with metals, however he didn't propose that it could be a new element.

     In alchemy, Paracelsus believed that every human needed a balance of minerals and metals in their body. In this theory, certain illnesses had chemical remedies that could cure them. At the time, seven was a very important number in the world. There were seven planets in the sky, seven metals in the earth, and seven centers (major organs) in the human body. Paracelsus showed how everything corresponded in a chart known as the Harmony of Elements and Organs.

     Paracelsus taught that every human needs a balance of these elements in their body to stay healthy. He believed that sickness and health relied on the harmony of man and nature. As humans ward off evil influence with morality, they must ward off illness with good health.

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Resources:

Principles of Alchemy

Three Primes in Alchemy

Alchemy Symbols and Meaning

Isaac Newton

Hogwarts is Here: Alchemy

List of Alchemists